Soft magnetic materials are those materials that are easily magnetised and demagnetised. They typically have intrinsic coercivity less than 1000 Am-1. They are used primarily to enhance and/or channel the flux produced by an electric current. The main parameter, often used as a figure of merit for soft magnetic materials, is the relative permeability ( mr, where mr = B/moH), which is a measure of how readily the material responds to the applied magnetic field. The other main parameters of interest are the coercivity, the saturation magnetisation and the electrical conductivity.
Hard magnets, also referred to as permanent magnets, are magnetic materials that retain their magnetism after being magnetised. Practically, this means materials that have an intrinsic coercivity of greater than ~10kAm-1. It is believed that permanent magnets have been used for compasses by the Chinese since ~2500BC. However, it was only in the early twentieth century that high carbon steels and then tungsten / chromium containing steels replaced lodestone as the best available permanent magnet material. These magnets were permanent magnets due to the pinning of domain walls by dislocations and inclusions. The movement of dislocations within a material is often hindered by the same factors that effect the motion of domain walls and as a consequence these steels are mechanically very hard and are the origin of the term hard magnetic. These magnets had an energy product of approximately 8kJm-
This phenomenon of magnetic moment coupling between adjacent atoms or ions occurs in materials other than those that are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling results in an antiparallel alignment; the alignment of the spin moments of neighbouring atoms or ions in exactly opposite directions is termed antiferromagentism. Manganese Oxide (MnO) is one such material that displays this behavior. Manganese oxide is a ceramic material that is ionic in character, having both Mn and O ions. No net magnetic moment is associated with O ions, since there is a total cancellation of both spin and orbital moments. However, the Mn ions possesses s nrt magnetic moment that is Material predominantly of spin origin. These Mn ions are arrayed in the crystal structure such that the moments of adjacent ions are antiparallel. Obvioulsy, the opposing magnetic moments cancel one another and as a consequence, the solid as a whole possesses no net magnetic moment.
Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an external field, and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the transition metals iron, cobalt, nickel, and some of the rare earth metals. Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials result from atomic magnetic moments due to electron spinuncancelled electron spins as a consequence of the electron structure. There is also an orbital magnetic moments contribution that is small in comparison to the spin moment. Furthermore, in a ferromagnetic material, coupling interactions cause net spin magnetic moments of adjacent atoms to align with one another, even in the absence of an external field. The maximum possible magnetization or saturation magnetization Ms of a ferromagnetic material represents the magnetization that results when all the magnetic diploes in a solid piece are mutually aligned with the external field; there is also a corresponding saturation flux density Bs. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic materials.
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of electrons due to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is extremely small and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic. Paramagnetic material is one whose atoms do have permanent dipole moments, but the magic of ferromagnetism is not active. If a magnetic field is applied to such a material, the dipole moments try to line up with the magnetic field, but are prevented from becoming perfectly aligned by their random thermal motion. Because the dipoles try to line up with the applied field, the susceptibilities of such materials are positive, but in the absence of the strong ferromagnetic effect, the susceptibilities are rather small, say in the range to . When a paramagnetic material is placed in a strong magnetic field, it becomes a magnet, and as long as the strong magnetic field is present, it will attract and repel other magnets in the usual way. But when the strong magnetic field is removed, the net magnetic alignment is lost as the dipoles relax back to their normal random motion. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Another test term sometimes used is ‘intrinsic dielectric strength’, which is the maximum voltage gradient a homogeneous substance will withstand in a uniform electric field. This shows the ability of an insulating material to resist breakdown, but practical tests produce lower values for a number of reasons: • Defects, voids, and foreign particles introduced during manufacture which lower the dielectric strength locally, having the effect of reducing the test values as the area tested is increased • The presence of a stress concentration at the electrode edges or points where the electric field is higher than average. • Due to the damaging effect of an electric discharge during testing • Because of dielectric heating, which raises the temperature and lowers the breakdown…
All insulating materials fail at some level of applied voltage, and ‘dielectric strength’ is the voltage a material can withstand before breakdown occurs. Dielectric strength is measured through the thickness of the material (taking care to avoid surface effects) and is normally expressed as a voltage gradient (volts per unit length). Note that the voltage gradient at breakdown is much higher for very thin test pieces (<100µm thick) than for thicker sections. The value of dielectric strength for a specimen is also influenced by its temperature and ambient humidity, by any voids or foreign materials in the specimen, and by the conditions of test, so that it is often difficult to compare data from…
A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field. The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials. Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena in electronics, optics, and solid-state physics.
Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and tough, and it was so significant in antiquity that the Bronze Age was named after the metal. Admiralty brass contains 30% zinc, with 1% tin to inhibit dezincification in many environments. Alpha brasses with less than 35% zinc, are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one phase, with face-centered cubic crystal structure. Alpha-beta brass (Muntz metal), also called duplex brass, is 35–45% zinc and is suited for hot working. It contains both α and β' phase; the β'-phase is body-centered cubic and is harder and stronger than α. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot. Aluminium…
Chromium is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard and brittle metal which takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. Chromium oxide was used by the Chinese in the Qin dynasty over 2,000 years ago to coat metal weapons found with the Terracotta Army. Chromium was discovered as an element after it came to the attention of the western world in the red crystalline mineral crocoite (lead(II) chromate), discovered in 1761 and initially used as a pigment. Louis Nicolas Vauquelin first isolated chromium metal from this mineral in 1797. Since Vauquelin's first production of metallic chromium, small amounts of native (free) chromium metal have been discovered in rare minerals, but these are not used commercially. Instead, nearly all chromium is commercially extracted from the single commercially viable orechromite, which is iron chromium oxide Chromite is also now the chief source of chromium for chromium pigments. Applications The strengthening effect of forming stable metal carbides at the grain boundaries and the strong increase in corrosion resistance made chromium an important alloying material for steel. The high-speed tool steels contain between 3 and 5% chromium. Stainless steel, the main corrosion-…