Rawls argues that all rational people would agree to abide by two basic moral principles: 1. Each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with an equal amount for others and 2. Differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit everyone, including members of most disadvantaged groups
Contends that certain acts (or duties) should be performed because they are inherently ethical such as: β’ be honest, β’ keep promises, β’ do not inflict sufferings on other people, β’ be fair, β’ make reparation when you have been unfair, β’ How gratitude for kindness extended by others β’ seek to improve own intelligence and character, β’ develop oneβs talents, β’ donβt commit suicide. β’ Duties, rather than good consequences, is fundamental. β’ Individuals who recognize their ethical duties will choose ethically correct moral actions These…
1. Cost/benefit β quantifiable approach. Maximize positive utilities (benefits) Against negative utilities (costs). 2. Act utilitarian β βWill the course of action produce more good than any alternative course of action that I could takeβ? 3. Rule utilitarian β βWould utility be maximized if everyone did the same thing in the same circumstancesβ? Adoption of commonly accepted rules. 1. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS: β’ Assess the available options β’ Assess the costs and benefits of each option for the entire audience affected β’ Make the decision that is likely to result in the greatest benefit relative to cost. 2. ACT-UTILITARIANISM: β’ Focuses on individual actions, rather than general rules. β’ An act is right if it is likely to produce the most good for the most people involved in the particular situation. β’ Rules may be broken whenever doing so will produce the most good in a specific situation. β’ Happiness is the only βintrinsicβ good and all others are βinstrumentalβ goods that serve as the means of happiness. 3. RULE-UTILITARIANISM:…
β’ That which produces the maximum benefit for the greatest number of people (e.g. Democracy) β’ Tries to achieve a balance between the good and bad consequences of an action β’ Tries to maximize the well-being of society and emphasizes what will provide the most benefits to the largest group of people β’ This method is fundamental to many types of engineering analysis, including risk- benefit analysis and cost-benefit analysis Drawbacks: β’ Sometimes what is best for the community as a whole is bad for certain individuals in the community β’ It is often impossible to know in advance which decision will lead to the most good Organizing Principles to Resolving Ethical Issues β’ Utilitarian thinking β A standard that promotes those individual actions or rules that produce the greatest total amount of utility to those affected. β A code that enjoins engineers to promote the safety, health, and welfare of the public. β What is utility, though? Happiness? β’ Preference utilitarianism…
Causal Responsibility: consists simply in being a cause of some event. E.g. lightning as being responsible for a house catching fire. Legal Responsibility: consists simply in being a cause for harm that was so unlikely and also unforeseeable that no moral responsibility is involved
Responsibility ascribed by i) virtue, ii) obligations, iii) general moral capacities of people, iv) liabilities and accountability for actions and v) blameworthiness or praiseworthiness. 1. By virtue: A person is said to be a responsible person when we ascribe a moral virtue to the person. We expect that the person is regularly concerned to do the right thing, is conscientious and diligent in meeting obligations. In this sense, professional responsibility is the central virtue of engineers. 2. By obligation: Moral responsibilities can be thought of as obligations or duties to perform morally right acts. 3. By general moral capacity: When we view a person as a whole rather than one with respect to a specific area, we are actually thinking about the active capacity of the person for knowing how to act in morally appropriate ways e.g. the capacity of children grow as they mature and learn. 4. By accountability: Responsibility also means being accountable, answerable or liable to meet particular obligations. The virtue of professional responsibility implies a willingness to be accountable for oneβs conduct. 5. By being blameworthy: When accountability for a wrongdoing is at issue, responsible becomes a synonym for blameworthy. When right conduct is the issue, the context is praiseworthiness.
β’ Valuing oneself in morally appropriate ways. β’ Integral to finding meaning in oneβs life and work β’ A pre-requisite for pursuing other moral ideals and virtues. β’ Self-respect is a moral concept of properly valuing oneself but self-esteem is a psychological concept of positive attitude towards oneself. Self-respect takes two forms. 1. Recognition self-respect is properly valuing oneself because of oneβs inherent moral worth, the same worth that every other human being has. 2. Appraisal self-respect is properly valuing ourselves according to how well we meet moral standards and our personal ideals.
β’ Being morally responsible as a professional. β’ Most basic and comprehensive professional virtue. β’ Creation of useful and safe technological products while respecting the autonomy of clients and public, especially in matters of risk taking. This encompasses a wide variety of the more specific virtues grouped as follows: 1. SELF DIRECTION VIRTUES: Fundamental virtues in exercising our moral autonomy and responsibility. E.g. self-understanding, humility, good moral judgment, courage, self-discipline, perseverance, commitments, self-respect and dignity 2. PUBLIC SPIRITED VIRTUES: Focusing on the good of the clients and public affected by the engineersβ work by. Not directly and intentionally harming others i.e. βno maleficenceβ. Beneficence, sense of community, generosity are other virtues falling in this category. 3. TEAMWORK VIRTUES: Enables professionals to work successfully with others. E.g. collegiality, cooperativeness, the ability to communicate, respect for authority, loyalty to employers and leadership qualities. 4. PROFICIENCY VIRTUES:…
β’ βThe unexamined life is not worth living.β (Socrates, 470-399 B.C.) β’ βThe happy life is thought to be virtuous; now a virtuous life requires exertion and does not consist in amusement.β (Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.) The Four Main Virtues β’ Prudence (mind): to think about a moral problem clearly and completely β’ Temperance (emotions): control attraction to positive emotions β’ Fortitude (emotions): control aversion for negative emotions β’ Justice (will): choose according to truth and fairness. Virtue…