The Influence of Other Alloying Elements
Alloying strengthens metals by hindering the motion of dislocations. Thus, the strength of Fe–C alloys increase with C content and also with the addition of other elements.
Alloying strengthens metals by hindering the motion of dislocations. Thus, the strength of Fe–C alloys increase with C content and also with the addition of other elements.
The eutectoid composition of austenite is 0.8 wt %. When it cools slowly it forms perlite, a lamellar or layered structure of two phases: α-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C). Hypoeutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid ferrite plus the eutectoid pearlite. Hypereutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid cementite plus pearlite. Since reactions below the eutectoid temperature are in the solid phase, the equilibrium is not achieved by usual cooling from austenite
– Hypoeutectoid steels (carbon content from 0 to 0.83%) consist of primary (proeutectoid) ferrite (according to the curve A3) and Pearlite. – Eutectoid steel (carbon content 0.83%) entirely consists of Pearlite. – Hypereutectoid steels (carbon content from 0.83 to 2.06%) consist of primary (proeutectoid) cementite (according to the curve ACM) and Pearlite. – Cast irons (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%) consist of cementite ejected from austenite according to the curve ACM , Pearlite and transformed ledeburite (ledeburite in which austenite transformed to pearlite). When the liquid of eutectic composition is cooled, at or below eutectic temperature this liquid transforms simultaneously into two solid phases (two terminal solid solutions, represented by αand β). This transformation is known as eutectic reactionand is written symbolically as: Liquid (L) ↔solid solution-1 (α) + solid solution-2 (β) In the solid state analog of a eutectic reaction, called a eutectoid reaction, one solid phase having eutectoid composition transforms into two different solid phases. Another set of invariant reactions that occur often in binary systems are – peritectic reaction where a solid phase reacts with a liquid phase to produce a new solid phase. For their role in mechanical properties of the alloy, it is important to note that: Ferrite is soft and ductile Cementite is hard and brittle. Thus, combining these two phases in solution an alloy can be obtained with intermediate properties. (Mechanical properties also depend on the microstructure, that is, how ferrite and cementite are mixed.)
– Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypo-eutectoid alloys. – Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which cementite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hyper-eutectoid alloys. – Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-Pearlite eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist. – Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which α-ferrite is ferromagnetic.
The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram This is one of the most important alloys for structural applications. The diagram Fe—C is simplified at low carbon concentrations by assuming it is the Fe—Fe3C diagram. Concentrations are usually given in weight percent. The possible phases are: • α-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution • γ-austenite (FCC) Fe-C solution • δ-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution • liquid Fe-C solution • Fe3C (iron carbide) or cementite. An intermetallic compound. The maximum solubility of C in α- ferrite is 0.022 wt%. δ−ferrite is only stable at high temperatures. It is not important in practice. Austenite has a maximum C concentration of 2.14 wt %. It is not stable below the eutectic temperature (727 C) unless cooled rapidly (Chapter 10). Cementite is in reality metastable, decomposing into α-Fe and C when heated for several years between 650 and 770 C. – δ–ferrite: – It is solid solution of carbon in δ-iron. Maximum concentration of carbon in δ- ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 ºF (1493ºC) which is the temperature of the peritectic transformation. The crystal structure of δ-ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered). – Austenite: – Austenite is interstitial solid solution of carbon in γ-iron. Austenite has FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting high solubility of carbon i.e. up to 2.06% at 2097 ºF (1147 ºC). Austenite does not exist below 1333 ºF (723ºC) and maximum carbon concentration at this temperature is 0.83%. – α–ferrite: – It is solid solution of carbon in α-iron. α-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon – up to 0.025% at 1333 ºF (723ºC). α-ferrite exists at room temperature. – Cementite – Cementite is also known as iron carbide, is an intermetallic compound of iron and carbon, having fixed composition Fe3C. Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing the properties of steels and cast irons.
A solid solution may be formed when impurity atoms are added to a solid, in which case the original crystal structure is retained and no new phases are formed. • Substitutional solid solutions: impurity atoms substitute for host atoms, and appreciable solubility is possible only when atomic diameters and electronegativities for both atom types are similar, when both elements have the same crystal structure, and when the impurity atoms have a valence that is the same as or less than the host material. • Interstitial solid solutions: These form for relatively small impurity atoms that occupy interstitial sites among the host atoms
From a micro structural standpoint, the first process to accompany a phase transformation is nucleation– the formation of very small particles or nuclei, of the new phase which are capable of growing. The second stage is growth, in which the nuclei increase in size; during this process, some volume of the parent phase disappears. The transformation reaches completion if growth of these new phase particles is allowed to proceed until the equilibrium fraction is attained. As would be expected, the time dependence of the transformations rate (which is often termed the kinetics of a transformation) is an important consideration in the heat treatment of materials. With many investigations, the fraction of reaction that has occurred is measured as a function of time, while the temperature is maintained constant. Transformation progress is usually ascertained by either microscopic examination or measurement of some physical property. Data are plotted as the fraction of transformed material versus the logarithm of time; an S-shaped curve, represents the typical kinetic behavior for most solid state reactions.
A precipitation reaction is a reaction in which soluble ions in separate solutions are mixed together to form an insoluble compound that settles out of solution as a solid. That insoluble compound is called a precipitate
The strength and hardness of some metal and alloys may be enhanced by the formation of extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a second phase within the original phase matrix; this must be accomplished by phase transformations that are induced by appropriate heat treatments. The process is called precipitation hardening because the small particles of the new phase are termed “precipitates”. Precipitation hardening and the treating of steel to form tempered matrensite are totally different phenomena, even though the heat treatment procedures are similar.
The eutectoid (eutectic-like) reaction is similar to the eutectic reaction but occurs from one solidphase to two new solid phases. It also shows as V on top of a horizontal line in the phase diagram. There are associated eutectoid temperature (or temperature), eutectoid phase, eutectoid and proeutectoid microstructures. The peritectic reaction also involves three solid in equilibrium, the transition is from a solid + liquid phase to a different solid phase when cooling. The inverse reaction occurs when heating.