Suresh Kumar is a passionate mechanical engineer with deep expertise in design, thermodynamics, manufacturing, and automation. With years of experience in the industry, they simplify complex engineering principles into practical insights for students, professionals, and enthusiasts. This blog serves as a hub for exploring cutting-edge innovations, fundamental concepts, and real-world applications in mechanical engineering.
When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile strength. The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond tensile strength. The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.
Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress. The point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming permanently (plastically). Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is called yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation. The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and reforming bonds. Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations. Tensile strength: When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a maximum, called the tensile strength, and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and it finally breaks at the fracture point. For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile…
When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation. In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called Hooke's law: σ = E ε That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In some cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can be defined alternatively as the local slope: E = dσ/dε Shear stresses produce strains according to: τ = G γ where G is the shear modulus. Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the second derivative of the interatomic potential, or the first derivative…
When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the loadwas applied. Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).Deformation is reversible, non permanent
Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters a series of regularly spaced obstacles that (1) are capable of scattering the wave, and (2) have spacings that are comparable in magnitude to the wavelength. Furthermore, diffraction is a consequence of specific phase relationships established between two or more waves that have been scattered by the obstacles. The magnitude of the distance between two adjacent and parallel planes of atoms (i.e., the interplanar spacing ) is a function of the Miller indices (h, k, and l) as well as the lattice parameter(s). For example, for crystal structures that have cubic symmetry
Point Defects Vacancies and Self-Interstitials A vacancy is a lattice position that is vacant because the atom is missing. It is createdwhen the solid is formed. There are other ways of making a vacancy, but they also occur naturally as a result of thermal vibrations. An interstitial is an atom that occupies a place outside the normal lattice position. It maybe the same type of atom as the others (self interstitial) or an impurity atom. In the case of vacancies and interstitials, there is a change in the coordination of atoms around the defect. This means that the forces are not balanced in the same way as for other atoms in the solid, which results in lattice distortion around the…
A system of notation is required to identify particular direction(s) or plane(s) to characterize the arrangement of atoms in a unit cell Rules for Miller Indices (Planes) 1. Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions. 2. Take the reciprocals 3. Clear ractions 4. Reduce to lowest terms 5. For example, if the x-, y-, and z- intercepts are 2, 1, and 3, the Miller indices are calculated as: 6. Take reciprocals: 1/2, 1/1, 1/3 7. Clear fractions (multiply by 6):…
Single Crystals Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal. Then it has a regular geometric structure with flat faces. Polycrystalline Materials A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other. It is called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other. Where they meet is called a grain boundary. Non-Crystalline Solids In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean random, since the distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard spheres. Also, in many cases there is some form of short-range order. For instance, the tetragonal order of crystalline SiO2(quartz) is still apparent in amorphous SiO2 (silica glass.)
Important properties of the unit cells are - The type of atoms and their radii R. - Cell dimensions (side a in cubic cells, side of base a and height c in HCP) in terms of R. - n, number of atoms per unit cell. For an atom that is shared with m adjacent unit cells, we only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m. - CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded.…
When the crystal systems are combined with the various possible lattice centerings, we arrive at the Bravais lattices. They describe the geometric arrangement of the lattice points, and thereby the translational symmetry of the crystal. In three dimensions, there are 14 unique Bravais lattices that are distinct from one another in the translational symmetry they contain. All crystalline materials recognized until now (not including quasicrystals) fit in one of these arrangements. The fourteen three-dimensional lattices, classified by crystal system, are shown above. The Bravais lattices are sometimes referred to as space lattices. The crystal structure consists of the same group of atoms, the basis, positioned around each and every lattice point. This group of atoms therefore repeats indefinitely in three dimensions according to the arrangement of one of the 14 Bravais lattices. The characteristic rotation and mirror symmetries of the group of atoms, or unit cell, is described by its crystallographic point group.