Suresh Kumar is a passionate mechanical engineer with deep expertise in design, thermodynamics, manufacturing, and automation. With years of experience in the industry, they simplify complex engineering principles into practical insights for students, professionals, and enthusiasts. This blog serves as a hub for exploring cutting-edge innovations, fundamental concepts, and real-world applications in mechanical engineering.
Stages of ductile fracture 1. Initial necking 2. Small cavity formation (micro voids) 3. Void growth (ellipsoid) by coalescence into a crack 4. Fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o 5. Final shear fracture (cup and cone) The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which…
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the melting point. The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether the elongation is large or small. Steps in fracture (response to stress): • Crack formation • Crack propagation
The Durometer is a popular instrument for measuring the indentation hardness of rubber and rubber-like materials. The most popular testers are the Model A used for measuring softer materials and the Model D for harder materials.The operation of the tester is quite simple. The material is subjected to a definite pressure applied by a calibrated spring to an indenter that is either a cone or sphere and an indicating device measures the depth of indentation.
The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of the rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the rebound is arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units, divided into 100 parts, which represent the average rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued higher than 100 to include metals having greater hardness. In normal use the shore scleroscope test does not mark the material under test. The Shore Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material and the hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds, the…
Knoop Hardness Test The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations made with loads not exceeding 1 kgf. The indenter is either the Vickers diamond pyramid or the Knoop elongated diamond pyramid. The procedure for testing is very similar to that of the standard Vickers hardness test, except that it is done on a microscopic scale with higher precision instruments. The surface being tested generally requires a metallographic finish; the smaller the load used, the higher the surface finish required. Precision microscopes are used to measure the indentations; these usually have a magnification of around X500 and measure to an accuracy of +0.5 micrometres. Also with the same observer differences of +0.2 micrometres can usually be resolved. It should, however, be added that considerable care and experience are necessary to obtain this accuracy. The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter, P (kgf) to the…
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation. When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness may be calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was…
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number. Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number readout and rapid testing time.
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area ofthe indentation.
Gross plastic deformation of a polycrystalline specimen corresponds to the comparable distortion of the individual grains by means of slip. During deformation, mechanical integrity and coherency are maintained along the grain boundaries; that is, the grain boundaries is constrained, to some degree, in the shape it may assume by its neighboring grains. Before deformation the grains are equiaxed, or have approximately the same dimension in all directions. For this particular deformation, the grains become elongated along the directions. For this particular deformation, the grains become elongated along the direction in which the specimen was extended.
When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile strength. The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond tensile strength. The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.