Basics
15 Important Laws of Physics
Physical laws play a crucial role in Science and are considered as fundamental. Many laws of physics are built after various research or some are a modification of existing laws and theoretical research. Physical laws are the conclusions drawn on the basis of long year scientific observations and experiments which are repeated again and again under different…
The Role of Mechanical Engineers in the Aerospace Industry
The aerospace industry is a multidisciplinary sector that demands the expertise of professionals from various engineering backgrounds. Among them, mechanical engineers play a crucial role, contributing to the design, development, manufacturing, and maintenance of aircraft, spacecraft, and associated systems. Their responsibilities cover a wide range of activities, ensuring that aerospace systems are safe, reliable, and…
10 Characteristics of Great Engineers
Engineers are the inventors, designers, analysers and builders of our modern age. They create the machines, structures and systems we use on a daily basis, most of the time without thinking twice about the work that went into them. The constrains of physics, the confines of the manufacturing technology of the modern age, the limitations…
The Difference Between Watts and Volts:
Understanding the difference between watts and volts, as well as amperes (amps) and ohms, is crucial when working with any type of electrical system. Repairing household wiring requires a solid understanding of electrical terms, and it is even a helpful knowledge base to have for everyday living. How many times have you seen a lightbulb…
Meissner Effect & Superconductor Types
The Meissner effect is an expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state. T he German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered the phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution outsidesuperconducting tin and lead samples. The interior of a bulk superconductor cannot be penetrated by a weak magnetic field, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. When the applied magnetic field becomes too large, superconductivity breaks down. Superconductors can be divided into two types according to how thisbreakdown occurs. In type-I superconductors, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed via a first order phase transition when the strength of the applied field rises above a critical value Hc. Type-II superconductor is characterized by the formation of magnetic vortices in an applied magnetic field. This occurs above a certain critical field strength Hc1. The vortex density increases with increasing field strength. At a higher critical field Hc2, superconductivity is completely destroyed.
Superconductivity
Superconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct electrical current with no resistance and extremely low losses. This ability to carry large amounts of current can be applied to electric power devices such as motors and generators, and to electricity transmission in power lines. For example, superconductors can carry as much as 100 times the amount of electricity of ordinary copper or aluminum wires of the same size. Scientists had been intrigued with the concept of superconductivity since its discovery in the early 1900s, but the extreme low temperatures the phenomenon required was a barrier to practical and low-cost applications. This all changed in 1986, when a new class of ceramic superconductors was discovered that “superconducted” at higher temperatures. The science of high-temperature superconductivity (HTS) was born, and along with it came the prospect for an elegant technology that promises to “supercharge” the way energy is generated, delivered, and used.
Semiconductivity
Intrinsic Semiconductor Semiconductors can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic means that electrical conductivity does not depend on impurities, thus intrinsic means pure. In extrinsic semiconductors the conductivity depends on the concentration of impurities. Conduction is by electrons and holes. In an electric field, electrons and holes move in opposite direction because they have opposite charges. In an intrinsic semiconductor, a hole is produced by the promotion of each electron to the conduction band. Thus: n = p Extrinsic Semiconductor Unlike intrinsic semiconductors, an extrinsic semiconductor may have different concentrations of holes and electrons. It is called p-type if p>n and n-type if n>p. They are made by doping, the addition of a very small concentration of impurity atoms. Two common methods of doping are diffusion and ion implantation. Excess electron carriers are produced by substitutional impurities that have more valence electron per atom than the semiconductor matrix. For instance phosphorous, with 5 valence electrons, is an electron donor in Si since only 4 electrons are used to bondto the Si lattice when it substitutes for a Si atom. Thus, elements in columns V and VI of the periodic table are donors for semiconductors in the IV column, Si and Ge. The energy level of the donor state is close to the conduction band, so that the electron is promoted (ionized) easily at room temperature, leaving a hole (the ionized donor) behind. Since this hole is unlike a hole in the matrix, it does not move easily by capturing electrons from adjacent atoms. This means that the conduction occurs mainly by the donated electrons (thus n-type). Excess holes are produced by substitutional impurities that have fewer valence electrons per atom than the matrix. This is the case of elements of group II and III in column IV semiconductors, like B in Si. The bond with the neighbors is incomplete and so they can capture or accept electrons from adjacent silicon atoms. They are called acceptors. The energy level of the acceptor is close to the valence band, so that an electron may easily hop from the valence band to complete the bond leaving a hole behind. This means that conduction occurs mainly by the holes (thus p-type). The Temperature Variation of Conductivity and Carrier Concentration Temperature causes electrons to be promoted to the conduction band and from donor levels, or holes to acceptor levels. The dependence of conductivity on temperature is like other thermally activated processes: σ = A exp(–Eg/2kT) where A is a constant (the mobility varies much more slowly with temperature). Plotting ln σ vs. 1/T produces a straight line of slope Eg/2k from which the band gap energy can be determined….
Binary Eutectic Systems
Interpretation: Obtain phases present, concentration of phases and their fraction (%). Solvus line: limit of solubility Eutectic or invariant point. Liquid and two solid phases exist in equilibrium at the eutectic composition and the eutectic temperature. The melting point of the eutectic alloyis lower than that of the components (eutectic = easy to melt in Greek).• At most two phases can be in equilibrium within a phase field.• Single-phase regions are separated by 2-phase regions.
Interpretation of phase diagrams
Concentrations: Tie-line method a) locate composition and temperature in diagram b) In two phase region draw tie line or isotherm c) note intersection with phase boundaries. Read compositions. Fractions: lever rule a) construct tie line (isotherm) b) obtain ratios of line segments lengths.
Phase Diagrams
Equilibrium Phase Diagrams Give the relationship of composition of a solution as a function of temperatures and the quantities of phases in equilibrium. These diagrams do not indicate the dynamics when one phase transforms into another. Sometimes diagrams are given with pressure as one of the variables. In the phase diagrams we will discuss, pressure is assumed to be constant at one atmosphere. Binary Isomorphous Systems This very simple case is one complete liquid and solid solubility, an isomorphous system. The example is the Cu-Ni alloy of Fig. 9.2a. The complete solubility occurs because both Cu and Ni have the same crystal structure (FCC), near the same radii, electronegativity and valence. The liquidus line separates the liquid phase from solid or solid + liquid phases. That is, the solution isliquid above the liquidus line. The solidus line is that below which the solution is completely solid (does not contain a liquid phase.)